The
Birth of a New Galaxy
At
this point in our progress of understanding, we shall embark upon a most
ambitious journey. We are going out into space. Into the remotest depths of
inter galactic space, so that we may observe, at close range, the birth
processes of a new star cluster or 'Galaxy.' We will take along our
consciousness, our ability to observe, and our understanding. We must, of
course, leave our bodies behind, since they would not fare well in space, and
also because their mass would create a gravitational field which would tend to
alter the natural conditions at our point of observation. We will seek a spot
which is at least a few million light years distant from any other galaxy or
accumulation of matter; for it is only within these remote areas that we may
observe the birth process of a new galaxy.
In
the first part of this book, we discussed the almost inconceivably large number
of particles which are found in each cubic inch of our atmosphere at sea level.
As we move outward from the earth's surface we find that the number of
particles diminishes rapidly, but still remains surprisingly large. When we
have reached a height of one hundred miles we find that there are only about
one millionth as many particles per cubic inch as we found at the surface, this
is a density of matter so minute that we require very sensitive instruments,
even to detect its existence. Yet, if we count the individual particles, we
will find that there are still about 400 million, million particles in each
cubic inch of space. At a few hundred miles elevation the density has
diminished another million times, and we say that we have entered 'space', yet
there are still many millions of particles per cubic inch.
We
come to the startling realization that there simply is no such thing as 'empty
space.' Astronomers have estimated that even in the remotest depths of
intergalactic space, (which is our destination on this trip) there will still
be found from twenty five to seventy five or more nuclear or atomic particles
per cubic inch. Most of these particles are protons, or simple atoms
which have attained escape velocity from the surfaces of some star, and which
may have been wandering aimlessly about, perhaps for billions of years, coming
into occasional collision with ocher particles, but usually with sufficient
relative velocity so that mutual capture could not take place.
In
the vicinity of existing galaxies, the gravitational fields created by the
innumerable stars within those galaxies, tend to draw in the random particles,
many of which eventually fall into one or another of the stars, and thereby
assist somewhat in replenishing the mass which each star is constantly
converting into energy. We must, therefore, seek a spot which is remote from
any of the existing galaxies, and approximately equidistant from the nearer
ones. Even in this remote area of space we will find countless numbers of
particles of matter, anti-units of charge; electrons, protons or simple atoms,
which have achieved escape velocity from some star, or which have been formed
in space by random approach and capture. In short, we have all of the building
blocks of nature, present in an exceedingly tenuous and diffuse state.
Since
each of the particles of matter has mass, each has a force of attraction
existing between it and every other particle of matter in the area. If we
accept the concept of the non-linearity of natural law as previously outlined
in this text, we find that each of these particles is also being repelled
slightly by the surrounding galaxies or galactic clusters
These
forces are almost inconceivably small, yet the net result of their action is to
create a tendency upon the part of each randomly moving particle to move ever
closer to the center of the area of attraction, which is also approximately but
not exactly the center or 'null balance' point of the repulsion of the
surrounding galaxies.
We
will assume that we have now reached the point from which we will observe the
birth of our new galaxy. This point is at the center of a sphere of space,
perhaps thirty thousand light years in diameter, within which the final
concentration of matter will take place.
We
must be prepared to exercise a great deal of patience, because the forces
involved, and the resulting accelerations are so minute that many millions of
years will probably elapse before we can detect any significant increase in the
number of particles per unit of volume. Nevertheless, all of the particles
within several hundreds of thousands of light years are slowly but surely
acquiring a velocity in our direction.
As
the concentration of matter at the center of our system increases, the
intensity of its field will also increase and will add, not only to the
velocity, but also to the acceleration of the inward moving particles. We are
observing the condensation of a tremendously large volume of exceedingly
ratified gas into a relatively small volume.
Let
us assume that one hundred million years have passed since we first occupied
our point of observation at the center of the newly forming galaxy. All of the
particles within some thousands of light years have now acquired a very
respectable velocity in our direction, and the density of the gas surrounding
us is increasing with comparative rapidity. We observe however, that the
particles are not falling directly toward the central point of the
condensation.
We
can understand this if we realize that the center or null point of the force of
repulsion is determined only by the distribution and the distance of the
surrounding galaxies, while the center of the force of attraction is determined
by the distribution of matter within the area of condensation. Since the center
of 'push' is not at the same point as the center of 'pull', there is a tendency
toward the creation of an angular velocity. That is, the particles, instead of
falling directly toward the center, will tend to spiral inward. Eventually this
rotational motion will become general throughout the mass.
The
plane in which this spin begins is determined by the location of the existing
galaxies and the relative density of particles in different parts of the
condensing mass, but once begun, the motion tends constantly to increase as the
condensation proceeds. The particles which are upon either side of the central
plane of spin tend to fall toward the plane as well as toward the center, while
those particles which are nearly perpendicular to the center of the plane of
spin rend to fall inward more rapidly because of their smaller rotational
velocities.
Our
gas cloud now begins to take on the shape of a disk with a somewhat oblate
sphere at the center. The galaxy has begun to assume its final shape, though as
yet, there are no stars within it nor does it emit any light. If we were to direct a
large telescope on earth towards this gas cloud, we would not be able to see it
at all. Since all of the light
coming from the galaxies behind it is now being absorbed, we would see only
that there was an unusually large dark area in space. We would probably refer
to it as a 'dark nebula,' a tremendous body of gas, still somewhat rarefied
according to our usual concept of gas; which emits no light, but which does
absorb, and convert to lower frequencies, almost all of the light, and other
forms of radiant energy which reach it from the countless radiating stars
throughout the universe.
As
the nebula continues to contract, areas of comparatively high density will
develop in many parts of the mass. Each of these points will become a local
center of gravity, and accelerated condensation will occur towards these
points. The gas cloud now becomes broken up into a multitude of individual
spheres, each of which continues to condense upon its own center, just as a
cloud condenses into myriads of tiny water droplets.
Let
us now direct our attention to one of these 'droplets' which is eventually to
become a star in our new galaxy. It is still several millions of miles in
diameter, but shrinking rapidly. As the gas cloud condenses, the energy which
it contains, becomes concentrated. The particles which while they were drifting
about in space, had almost infinitely long 'mean free paths, now come into more
and more frequent and more and more violent collisions.
The
temperature of the mass constantly rises. The kinetic energy which the
particles have been building up during the millions of years while they were
accelerating toward the common center, is now being converted into thermal
energy. Eventually the mass begins to emit photons having frequencies in the
visible portion of the spectrum. We can now say that the star has been 'born',
although it may still have more resemblance to a nebula, than to a star. A
great deal more contraction will take place before the internal pressure of the
gas begins to balance the gravitational force.
The
star which we have chosen for observation is one of the millions which are
forming within the central portion of the nebula. Since the nebula was created
by the gradual inward movement of particles from an immense volume of space, it
is apparent that it is within the spherical area at the center that the gas
will first achieve a density sufficient for the process of condensation into
separate stars to begin.
By
this time the entire nebula has acquired a fairly uniform rotation about its
center of mass. The individual stars, during their condensation, will of course
retain this rotation but will also develop a rotational motion about their own
center of gravity. As the gas at the core of the new star becomes denser, the
gravitational field becomes more and more intense, and the surrounding matter
falls, with ever increasing rapidity toward the center. Most of the gas which,
even during the dark nebula stage, occupied dozens of cubic light years, of
space, now is compressed into a sphere only a few million miles in diameter.
Earlier
in this text we observed that the temperature of a given gas will be inversely
proportionate to the volume which that gas occupies, so long as the total
thermal energy contained remains the same. The gas which we are observing is
now billions of times more densely packed than it was when the condensation
began, and the temperature has risen from a fraction of a degree absolute, to
several millions of degrees. This temperature continues to rise as the high
kinetic energy which the incoming particles have acquired during their long
fall, is converted into thermal energy as those particles impact the randomly
moving particles at the surface of the star.
The
condensation of the star, from the dark nebula to its present state of
development has been comparatively rapid, only a few million years being
required for the process. Most of the matter available to the star has now
formed into a fairly compact spheroid, and comparatively little new matter is
arriving at the surface.
As
the mass continues to contract, the temperature within the body of the star
continues to rise, but because of the tremendous amount of radiant energy which
is now escaping from the surface, its temperature will remain far below that of
the interior.
The
star is now a member of the class which Walter Baade, then a member of the
Mount Wilson Observatory staff, named Population I, a blue white star with a
surface temperature of the order of 30,000 degrees absolute, and an internal
temperature of several millions of degrees. It is emitting light and heat
energy at a rate much greater than can be replaced by the comparatively small
amount of material which is still falling into it from the nebular cloud.
If
the life process of the star ended here, its period of luminescence would be
very short. Within a few thousands of years, the surface temperature would
begin to fall below the point of incandescence and the star would appear as a
dull red body. The continuing contraction of its mass might maintain the star
in this condition for a few thousands of years more, but eventually the surface
would become almost entirely dark, and a liquid or solid crust would probably
begin to form.
We
know, however, even from our relatively short history of astronomical
observations, that the active period of a star is much greater than this. Let
us, therefore, return to our nuclear scale of observation to determine the
source from which the star receives its continuing supply of energy.
We
must remember that much of the matter which forms our new star, consists of
atoms which, eons ago, escaped from the surface of some other star. Since
the atom of normal hydrogen (1H1) is the lightest of the
atom family, it will acquire, at a given energy level, a greater velocity than
any other atom, and since velocity is the principal factor in the escape of
atoms from the gravitational field of a star, we would assume that most of the
particles to be found in open space would be hydrogen atoms.
The
new, star, which is simply a condensation of these particles, would also be
assumed to consist principally of hydrogen. This fact, which we can predict
from our simple study of the behavior of atomic particles, has been verified
many times by spectrographic analysis of the newer stars in presently existing
galaxies.
Let
us examine the interior of the star, to see if we can discover the source of
its great energy supply. (Since we left our bodies at home when we embarked
upon this extra-galactic tour, we will not be unduly inconvenienced by the high
temperatures and pressures which exist in the regions in which we must conduct
our observations.)
As
we approach the star, we first pass through a region which, in the case of our
sun, we call the corona. It is the area about a star where the incoming
particles first meet resistance in their long fall. The corona is a belt of
exceedingly tenuous gas whose particles have random motions. This layer of gas
is much like the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere except that its
temperature is very much higher. We must remember that the tremendous
gravitational field of the star is attracting particles from all parts of the
space surrounding it, and that they acquire very high velocities. As they fall
through the star's outer layer of gas, sooner or later, each falling particle
comes into direct collision with a particle of the corona gas. The linear
kinetic energy is converted to radiant energy of high intensity. We observe
temperatures of one trillion degrees Fahrenheit and more. The gas is, however,
so ratified that the total amount of heat created per unit volume of space is
small compared to the much greater quantities of energy which are being
radiated from lower levels.
After
we have descended through the corona, we encounter another layer of gas, much
denser than the gas of the corona. This layer we will call the photosphere,
because it is within this layer that most of the visible light which the star
radiates, is created. Here the temperature, as measured by the activity of the
particles, is much lower, only about 11,000 degrees F, yet the gas is so much
denser that the energy contained per unit volume, is many times greater than
that of the corona.
The
photosphere is essentially the receiving and shipping department of the star,
receiving great quantities of energy from deeper levels, and radiating that
energy into space in a never ending stream.
As
we descend deeper into the body of the star, we find that the temperature and
the pressure constantly increase. This means, of course, that as the gas
becomes denser, the mean free path of the particles is becoming shorter, and
their velocity is ever increasing. The frequency and violence with which the
particles impact each other becomes almost impossible to describe or imagine.
As
we approach the central core of the star, we find temperatures upward of twenty
millions of degrees, and pressures in the billions of pounds per square inch. Although
the material is still technically a gas, because all of the particles have
velocities greater than their escape velocity from each other, its density is
now about ten times that of solid steel.
If
we remember that in our atmosphere at 32°F and only 14.7 lbs. per square inch,
the average particle has a velocity of 1760 feet per second, and undergoes five
billion collisions per second, it may give us some faint comprehension of the
number and violence of the collisions which take place between the particles
deep within the body of a star.
We
see that the shell of force which the planetary electrons create about the
nucleus, is not sufficient to withstand impacts of this order, and the nucleus
is soon stripped of its planetary electrons. When the bare nuclei impact other
bare nuclei at this energy level we see that fusion of the two may, and
frequently does take place.
The
fusion of two nuclei results in the formation of a single nucleus which has a
mass slightly smaller than that of the two parts from which it was created. The
mass which is lost, appears as a tremendous burst of radiant energy, most of
which subsequently is converted to heat. We note that this fusion or joining
together of nuclear particles may occur in a number of ways, but in every case
where the resultant nucleus has a mass smaller than the mass of the atom of
silver, large quantities of heat will be released as a result of the
combination.
We
also observe that when the mass of the resultant nucleus is greater than the
mass of an atom of silver, a large quantity of energy is absorbed rather than
radiated, but this event occurs so infrequently that only an insignificant
amount of energy is thus subtracted from the total. It is this energy of fusion
which constantly replaces that which is being radiated into space from the
surface of the star.
The
process of fusion also gradually builds up heavier elements from the hydrogen
building blocks which were the principal material of the new star. Consequently
we would assume that the life expectancy of a given star is determined largely
by the amount of hydrogen which it has available for fusion.
If
the principal subject of our study were astronomy rather than the larger field
of cosmology, we might devote several chapters to the examination of the
inherent stabilities and instabilities which affect the process of fusion within
a star. If we had a few billion years to spare, we might watch the infant as it
changed slowly from a medium sized blue white star, to a somewhat smaller and
denser white, until the ever increasing instabilities of the nuclear reactions
within it finally overcame the stabilizing factors, and the entire star
suddenly erupted in the tremendous blast of inconceivable energy which we call
a nova.
After
a few months we would see all of the material which had not been blasted
irretrievably into space, slowly settle back into a very small and exceedingly
dense core which we would describe as a red dwarf.
Since
we have already spent many millions of years in this observational expedition,
perhaps it is time for us to consider returning to earth. After all, there are
many interesting things going on there too!
Before
we leave, however, there is one more pattern of development which we should
observe because it is, to our own egos at least, the most important of all.
In
the star which we have been observing, the condensation took place in a
symmetrical manner, with the result that a single sphere was formed. If we had
been able to observe all of the stellar condensations simultaneously, we would
have observed that in approximately one out of four or five cases, the
condensation did not proceed symmetrically. The reason for this is found in the
position and size of neighboring condensations.
As
in the case of the galactic nebula, the stellar gas cloud also begins to rotate
as it condenses, and again a plane of spin is created. The particles outside
this plane of spin tend to fall toward the plane as well as toward the center.
As the rate of spin increases, the gas at some distance from the center,
approaches orbital velocity with respect to that center. In simpler words, the
centrifugal force tends to balance the gravitational pull of the central mass,
and secondary centers of condensation are formed which are in orbit about the
principal mass. These secondary condensations are usually very small in proportion to
the main mass, just as the main mass is small in proportion to the galaxy.
(In
extreme cases, the condensing cloud may divide into two or more roughly equal
parts, each of which becomes a separate star, but which then arc in rotation
about a common center of gravity. It is in the smaller condensations however,
that we are particularly interested at this point.)
These
smaller bodies which, in the case of our solar system, we have named 'planets,'
will always be found to contain a much larger proportion of the heavier atoms,
than will be found in the body of the star.
The
reasons for this fact become obvious from our previous examination of atomic
behavior. In the first place, we have seen that the lighter atom has a higher
velocity at a given temperature, and so will reach escape velocity from a given
body at a lower temperature. The condensations which result in planetary
bodies, being comparatively small, do not reach the very high temperatures found in the stars, but they do reach
temperatures sufficiently high to cause most of the lighter particles to reach
escape velocity from the relatively small gravitational field.
Because the body is small, and the temperature low, such
nuclear reactions as may occur under these circumstances do not furnish
sufficient energy to replace that which is radiated, and the planet soon begins
to cool.
A solid crust forms upon the surface, and the elements
begin to combine in countless molecular patterns. When the surface has reached
a sufficiently low temperature, the stage is set for the creation of the
amino-acids which are generally conceded to be the starting point in the
development of the organic forms to which we refer collectively as 'life'. The
process is a delicate one, and only a small percentage of the planets may
develop conditions suitable for this type of synthesis. It is also possible
that the process may take place upon only a small percentage of those planets
which do have suitable conditions. Yet, among the tens of billions of planets
in a single galaxy, it is a virtual certainty, from a statistical standpoint,
that synthesis will occur upon at least a few hundred, or perhaps a few
thousand planets. (If we assume that the creation of life is directed by Divine
Will, then the number might be much larger.) If we wished to follow the
development of these first life forms through all of the stages of evolution
required to produce a sentient being, we might have to wait for a period of
time as long as that required for the formation of the galaxy, but eventually
such a genus would appear. A race of beings capable of originating complex
thought patterns, followed by equally complex actions.
Sooner or later, such a race would tire of its
confinement upon a single planet, and would seek means to broaden the scope of
its investigations, and of its movements. Having achieved space travel, the
race would proceed to radiate in all directions from its point of origin,
investigating many planets, and perhaps colonizing some of those which were
suitable for life but upon which life had not yet developed.
We must recall at this point, that it is the central
spheroid of the galaxy which is formed first. It is in the central portion,
that planets would first reach conditions suitable for life, and it is upon
these planets that life would first achieve a high degree of development.
Intelligent life might therefore be said to radiate from the center of a galaxy
outward toward the periphery. A process which might take place over a period of
several millions of years after the first race had achieved space travel.
It is with this thought, and in a very humble frame of
mind that we begin our return journey to our tiny planet earth; located almost
on the extreme outer edge of our own galaxy.
REFINING AND BROADENING THE ELEMENTARY E=MC2 EQUATION
Radius of Curvature of all Natural Law:
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